Japanese American Elder Cohorts

Japanese American Elders
through the decades of the 1900s
Based on information in COHORT ANALYSIS AS A TOOL IN ETHNOGERIATRICS,
Yeo, et.al (1999) , a publication of the Stanford Geriatric Education Center
Used with permission of the SGEC faculty
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Each Cohort webpage contains the following information:
General Information Decade of Interest Related to the Age of Your Patient If the age of your patient is: 1900-20 1920-40 1940-60 1960-80 1980-present 55-65 yrs 65-75 yrs 75-85 yrs 85+ yrs
Terms used to describe Japanese generational and cohort groupings help with understand family interactions:: Issei - the early immigrant pioneers from Japan.; Nisei - the American-born children of the Issei.; Sansei - children of Nisei.; Kibei - young Nisei (usually sons) sent oversears for a Japanese education.; Shin-Issei - post 1965 Japanese immigrants.; Senso Hanayome - post World War II brides; Nikkei -.a relatively recent term which is used to refer to Japanese Americans as a whole.

"The earliest history of Japanese in America begins in 1868 when the first few immigrants, both men and some women, from Japan arrived in Hawaii as contract laborers to work on the sugar cane plantations. Because of this influx, the Japanese became the dominant population on the islands. In 1862, the U.S. passed the Chinese Exclusion Act .... It is thought that thousands of young Japanese male laborers came from Hawaii and Japan in 1885 to work on railroads, to pick fruit and vegetables for canneries, or to work in industries such as logging, mining, and meatpacking. Most of theses young men hoped to make their fortunes and return to Japan.
"The Osseo laborers were primarily from farming backgrounds but were educated and middle class by Japanese standards. They were desirable workers because they worked for low wages, were industrious, and did not complain, however, these traits often made them unpopular with other employees. Unable to achieve upward mobility in these occupations, many Issei turned to agricultural, floral, and fishing industries. About half the total population lived in West Coast cities (Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle) while the remainder clustered in rural areas considered marginal for farming.
".... the U.S. entered into the Gentleman's Agreement with Japan in 1907. The Japanese government agreed they would no longer issue passports to the U.S. to skilled or unskilled laborers. However, laborers who had already been to America might return to Japan and ... passports could be issued to their parents, wives, and children. This legislation had the exact opposite effect by causing the Japanese population to more than double. ... This era became known as the period of summoning families or yobiyose-jidai.
"Proxy marriages were often based on photographs alone, which were legal under Japanese law. The young "picture brides" faced many hardships beginning with the long boat trip. In addition to the anticipation and anxieties associated with meeting their spouses for the first time, many became homesick or physically ill. ....
"Traditional Japanese families were male-dominated and vertical in structure with interactions based on clearly prescribed roles, duties, and responsibilities. An emphasis was placed not on religion (although families were members of Japanese Buddhist temples and various Christian denominations) but on ethical behavior and how one acts toward parents, friends, and strangers. Children were raised to practice the Confucian values of 19th century Japan during the reign of Emperor Meiji). For example, arranged marriages required adaptation ... yet divorce, desertion or separation was a rare alternative. This was due to Japanese expectations which emphasized stoicism or "sticking things out" (gaman) out of duty and obligation. Giri is a moral obligation toward others, whereby, shame or guilt (to lose "face") is felt not only by the individual, but shared by the family and the Japanese community. This attitude fostered conformity and decreased social deviance. Another fundamental term, oyakoko or filial piety, represents an absolute reciprocal obligation from parent to child and child to parent (which forms the basis for family caregiving).
"....By 1924, urban Issei began to open businesses such as restaurants, laundries, cleaning establishments, grocery stores, service stations, theaters, and barber shops. Tonomoshi groups were formed to provide financial assistance to members and friends.... This group solidarity was critical as it provided not only money, but customers and employment. Contract gardening became an important and common occupation because of a growing demand; gardening called for little capital and provided substantial autonomy.
"The period from 1941-1945 was the most significant time in the lives of the majority of mainland Nikkei elders for it marks the wartime evacuation and internment of all people of Japanese descent from the West Coast to inland relocation centers. .... They were treated like "enemy aliens" and prisoners of war. Restrictions were placed on German, Italian, and Japanese residents, including Niseis who were citizens by birth, even though not a single act of sabotage or espionage occurred.
"On February 18, 1942, President Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9066 ... and all persons of Japanese descent on the West Coast were to be evacuated. Although the order never mentioned the word Japanese, only those of Japanese ancestry were moved; Italian and German Americans were exempted.
".... Families had 48 hours to dispose of all their possessions and property and to gather only those household and personal items they could carry. Pets were not allowed. Families were registered and given numbered tags to identify themselves and their possessions. .... Families were then transported to permanent facilities, one of ten War Relocation Authority internment "camps" located in isolated inland deserts or swamp lands. These were heavily guarded and overcrowded. Families lived in single rooms with furniture made from scrap lumber or purchased from catalogues.
"Ironically, in January 1944, the WRA reinstated the draft for Japanese Americans. While some Nisei men resisted the draft because their families were "prisoners," a number volunteered for the army. Many volunteered to prove their loyalty to the U.S. .... For its size and length of service, the 100th Infantry Battalion/442nd Regimental Combat Team became the most highly decorated unit in U.S. history. ....
"The post-war period of resettlement began in 1945.... Many families permanently relocated in the East and Midwest after locating jobs there. Others returned to the West Coast, often finding their homes or property vandalized or neglected, and suffering continued discrimination in housing and employment.
"From 1945-47 approximately 45,000 war brides from marriages between Japanese women and American servicemen were admitted to the U.S. Very little information has been documented about this cohort. However, these women faced not only a new home in a foreign country, but many families in Japan "disowned" them for marrying men who were not Japanese. ....

"The Issei and Nisei placed their faith and hopes in the success of their children to insure that they had opportunities that were denied them. They emphasized hard work, responsibility, and respect for authority. As a result, Japanese Americans are considered the most acculturated and assimilated Asian subgroup and they have been characterized as a "model minority." But in spite of their overall success and achievements, many factors may hinder successful aging for today's diverse older Japanese American population: (Yeo, et al, 1999, pg. 25-30)

Older Japanese Americans are a heterogeneous group. For example, elders from Hawaii were not an ethnic minority and did not face discrimination like those on the mainland. ....
Older Nikkei face intergenerational conflicts as Sansei and Yonsei become more assimilated and outmarry (nearly 50%), diluting the time-honored Japanese values such as oyakokoko and family care. ....
Little is know about the health status of Japanese Americans because very few studies have been done among this population.
Many older Nikkei continue to harbor a distrust of the U.S. government and its bureaucracy because of past treatment.

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Years

Historical Events:

Japanese American Elders

age 55-65 age 65-75 age 75-85 age 85+

1990s

First apologies and redress payments sent to survivors.

Young

Adults &

Middle

Aged

Middle

Aged &

Young Old

Young Old

&

Old

Old

1980s

High rates of "outmarriages" - marrying outside the Japanese community.

1988 - Civil Liberties Act, apology/payment of $20,000 to 60,000 survivors.

Commission on Wartime Relocation/Internment of Civilians reviews Executive Order 9066 constitutionality, reports "personal justice denied".

Young

Adults &

Middle

Aged

Middle

Aged &

Young Old

Young Old

&

Old

Old

1970s

"Model minority" label begins.

Sansei (third generation Japanese Americans) enter mainstream professions

Adolescents

& Young

Adults

Young

Adults &

Middle Aged

Middle

Aged &

Young Old

Young Old

&

Old

1940 -

1960

Nisei (second generation Japanese Americans) determined to succeed, integrate; "make no waves".

1959 - Hawaii becomes 50th state; first Japanese American, Daniel Inouye, elected to Congress.

Walter-McCarran Immigration and Naturalization Act passed; Asian immigrants allowed to become naturalized citizens; repeal of Alien Land Laws in California.

1946 - U.S. drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima/Nagasaki, ends war with Japan; Japanese American resettlement on West Coast met with hostility and housing shortages.

1945 - 45,000 Japanese war brides enter the U.S.

1943 - Military recruitment for all-Japanese-American combat unit, 442nd RCT activated; Internees denied right to vote; confusing loyalty questionnaire administered in camps causes family conflicts; 200 men convicted and sentenced to 3 years in prison for refusing induction.

1942 - Japanese Americans of draft age declared "enemy aliens"; President Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066, Japanese Americans exclusion from West Coast; incarceration of 120,000 Japanese Americans in "relocation centers."

1941 - Japan attacks U.S. fleet and military bases in Pearl Harbor; U.S. declares war on Japan, Germany, and Italy; incarceration of community leaders.

Children & Adolescents

Adolescents

& Young

Adults

Young

Adults &

Middle

Aged

Middle

Aged &

Young Old

1920 -

1940

1937 - U.S. breaks off all relations with Japan after invasion of Nationalist China.

1924 - Immigration Exclusion Act ends all Asian immigration except Filipinos.

1922 - Cable Act: anyone marrying an Issei (first generation Japanese immigrants) loses citizenship (repealed in 1936).

Japanese Americans considered "inscrutable".

Children

Children & Adolescents

Adolescents

& Young

Adults

Young

Adults &

Middle

Aged

1900 -

1920

Primary period of Japanese immigration to the U.S.

1913 - California's "aliens ineligible for citizenship" prohibited from land ownership; only "free white persons" eligible for citizenship; 3 year limit on land leases; similar laws in 10 other states.

1908 - Gentleman's Agreement, Japan will not issue visas to Japanese laborers; but wives, children, and families are allowed; era of "Picture Brides".

..
Children

Children & Adolescents

Adolescents

& Young

Adults

Pre-1900

Chinese Exclusion Act, stops immigration from China; increased demand for Japanese American immigrants to West coast; population of married women jumps from 410 in 1900 to 22,193 in 1920.

1869 - Japanese immigrants arrive in California.

1868 - Japanese immigrants to Hawaii as contract laborers.

..

..

Children

Children & Adolescents

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General Information	Decade of Interest					Related to the Age of Your Patient If the age of your patient is:
General Information	1900-20	1920-40	1940-60	1960-80	1980-present	55-65 yrs	65-75 yrs	75-85 yrs	85+ yrs

Years	Historical Events: Japanese American Elders	age 55-65	age 65-75	age 75-85	age 85+
1990s	First apologies and redress payments sent to survivors.	Young Adults & Middle Aged	Middle Aged & Young Old	Young Old & Old	Old
1980s	High rates of "outmarriages" - marrying outside the Japanese community. 1988 - Civil Liberties Act, apology/payment of $20,000 to 60,000 survivors. Commission on Wartime Relocation/Internment of Civilians reviews Executive Order 9066 constitutionality, reports "personal justice denied".	Young Adults & Middle Aged	Middle Aged & Young Old	Young Old & Old	Old
1970s	"Model minority" label begins. Sansei (third generation Japanese Americans) enter mainstream professions	Adolescents & Young Adults	Young Adults & Middle Aged	Middle Aged & Young Old	Young Old & Old
1940 - 1960	Nisei (second generation Japanese Americans) determined to succeed, integrate; "make no waves". 1959 - Hawaii becomes 50th state; first Japanese American, Daniel Inouye, elected to Congress. Walter-McCarran Immigration and Naturalization Act passed; Asian immigrants allowed to become naturalized citizens; repeal of Alien Land Laws in California. 1946 - U.S. drops atomic bombs on Hiroshima/Nagasaki, ends war with Japan; Japanese American resettlement on West Coast met with hostility and housing shortages. 1945 - 45,000 Japanese war brides enter the U.S. 1943 - Military recruitment for all-Japanese-American combat unit, 442nd RCT activated; Internees denied right to vote; confusing loyalty questionnaire administered in camps causes family conflicts; 200 men convicted and sentenced to 3 years in prison for refusing induction. 1942 - Japanese Americans of draft age declared "enemy aliens"; President Roosevelt signs Executive Order 9066, Japanese Americans exclusion from West Coast; incarceration of 120,000 Japanese Americans in "relocation centers." 1941 - Japan attacks U.S. fleet and military bases in Pearl Harbor; U.S. declares war on Japan, Germany, and Italy; incarceration of community leaders.	Children & Adolescents	Adolescents & Young Adults	Young Adults & Middle Aged	Middle Aged & Young Old
1920 - 1940	1937 - U.S. breaks off all relations with Japan after invasion of Nationalist China. 1924 - Immigration Exclusion Act ends all Asian immigration except Filipinos. 1922 - Cable Act: anyone marrying an Issei (first generation Japanese immigrants) loses citizenship (repealed in 1936). Japanese Americans considered "inscrutable".	Children	Children & Adolescents	Adolescents & Young Adults	Young Adults & Middle Aged
1900 - 1920	Primary period of Japanese immigration to the U.S. 1913 - California's "aliens ineligible for citizenship" prohibited from land ownership; only "free white persons" eligible for citizenship; 3 year limit on land leases; similar laws in 10 other states. 1908 - Gentleman's Agreement, Japan will not issue visas to Japanese laborers; but wives, children, and families are allowed; era of "Picture Brides".	..	Children	Children & Adolescents	Adolescents & Young Adults
Pre-1900	Chinese Exclusion Act, stops immigration from China; increased demand for Japanese American immigrants to West coast; population of married women jumps from 410 in 1900 to 22,193 in 1920. 1869 - Japanese immigrants arrive in California. 1868 - Japanese immigrants to Hawaii as contract laborers.	..	..	Children	Children & Adolescents